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Brazil is the world's second largest producer of ethanol fuel. Together, Brazil and the United States lead the industrial production of ethanol fuel in 2014, accounting together for 83.4 percent of the world's production. In 2014 Brazil produced 23.4 billion liters (6.19 billion U.S. liquid gallons), representing 25.2 percent of the world's total ethanol used as fuel.〔〔 Brazil is considered to have the world's first sustainable biofuels economy and the biofuel industry leader, a policy model for other countries; and its sugarcane ethanol "the most successful alternative fuel to date." However, some authors consider that the successful Brazilian ethanol model is sustainable only in Brazil due to its advanced agri-industrial technology and its enormous amount of arable land available;〔 while according to other authors it is a solution only for some countries in the tropical zone of Latin America, the Caribbean, and Africa.〔 "The author considers that ethanol can be a transport solution for Brazil, but one that only can be replicated in other tropical countries, from Africa to the Caribbean."〕〔 Discussion Paper 2009-15. "The authors found that for some countries in Central Africa and Latin America ethanol can represent a large industry, at least relative to current exports. The list of the relative importance of biofuels (sugarcane ethanol in particular and replicating the Brazilian production system) is headed by Suriname, Guyana, Bolivia, Paraguay, DR of Congo, and Cameroon. See pp. 5–6"〕〔 See Executive Summary and Appendix A: The Brazilian Experience.〕 Brazil’s 40-year-old ethanol fuel program is based on the most efficient agricultural technology for sugarcane cultivation in the world,〔 uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock, the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power, which results in a very competitive price and also in a high energy balance (output energy/input energy), which varies from 8.3 for average conditions to 10.2 for best practice production.〔 In 2010, the U.S. EPA designated Brazilian sugarcane ethanol as an advanced biofuel due to its 61% reduction of total life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, including direct indirect land use change emissions.〔〔 There are no longer any light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. Since 1976 the government made it mandatory to blend anhydrous ethanol with gasoline, fluctuating between 10% to 22%.〔 and requiring just a minor adjustment on regular gasoline engines. In 1993 the mandatory blend was fixed by law at 22% anhydrous ethanol (E22) by volume in the entire country, but with leeway to the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries. In 2003 these limits were set at a minimum of 20% and a maximum of 25%.〔 Since July 1, 2007 the mandatory blend is 25% of anhydrous ethanol and 75% gasoline or E25 blend.〔 The lower limit was reduced to 18% in April 2011 due to recurring ethanol supply shortages and high prices that take place between harvest seasons.〔 By mid March 2015 the government raised temporarily the ethanol blend in regular gasoline from 25% to 27%.〔 The Brazilian car manufacturing industry developed flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on any proportion of gasoline (E20-E25 blend) and hydrous ethanol (E100). Introduced in the market in 2003, flex vehicles became a commercial success, dominating the passenger vehicle market with a 94% market share of all new cars and light vehicles sold in 2013.〔 ''See pp. 3 and 14.''〕 By mid-2010 there were 70 flex models available in the market,〔 and , a total of 15 car manufacturers produce flex-fuel engines, dominating all light vehicle segments except sports cars, off-road vehicles and minivans.〔 The cumulative production of flex-fuel cars and light commercial vehicles reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010, and the 20 million-unit milestone was reached in June 2013.〔 , flex-fuel light-duty vehicle cumulative sales totaled 25.5 million units,〔 and production of flex motorcycles totaled 4 million in March 2015.〔 The success of "flex" vehicles, together with the mandatory E25 blend throughout the country, allowed ethanol fuel consumption in the country to achieve a 50% market share of the gasoline-powered fleet in February 2008.〔 In terms of energy equivalent, sugarcane ethanol represented 17.6% of the country's total energy consumption by the transport sector in 2008.〔 "Tables 3.6a and 3.6b. Data expressed in energy equivalent (toe). Report is based in 2008 data."〕 == History == Sugarcane has been cultivated in Brazil since 1532 as sugar was one of the first commodities exported to Europe by the Portuguese settlers. The first use of sugarcane ethanol as a fuel in Brazil dates back to the late twenties and early thirties of the twentieth century, with the introduction of the automobile in the country. Ethanol fuel production peaked during World War II and, as German submarine attacks threatened oil supplies, the mandatory blend became as high as 50% in 1943.〔 This paper was originally presented in the XVI International Synposium on Alcohol Fuels, and augmented or slightly revised with the addition of new information in 2006–2008.〕 After the end of the war cheap oil caused gasoline to prevail, and ethanol blends were only used sporadically, mostly to take advantage of sugar surpluses,〔 until the seventies, when the first oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness of the dangers of oil dependence.〔〔 As a response to this crisis, the Brazilian government began promoting bioethanol as a fuel. The National Alcohol Program -''Pró-Álcool''- ((ポルトガル語:''Programa Nacional do Álcool'')), launched in 1975, was a nationwide program financed by the government to phase out automobile fuels derived from fossil fuels, such as gasoline, in favor of ethanol produced from sugar cane.〔〔 The first phase of the program concentrated on production of anhydrous ethanol for blending with gasoline.〔 The Brazilian government made mandatory the blending of ethanol fuel with gasoline, fluctuating from 1976 until 1992 between 10% to 22%.〔 Ph.D. Dissertation Thesis, pp. 81–82〕 Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend, pure gasoline (E0) is no longer sold in the country. A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22% anhydrous ethanol (E22) in the entire country. This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries; and since 2003 these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25% (E25) and a minimum of 20% (E20) by volume.〔〔 See article 9º and modifications approved by Law Nº 10.696, 2003-07-02〕 Since then, the government has set the percentage of the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane harvest and the levels of ethanol production from sugarcane, resulting in blend variations even within the same year.〔 Since July 2007 the mandatory blend is 25% of anhydrous ethanol and 75% gasoline or E25 blend.〔 "This decree fixed the mandatory blend at 25% starting July 1st, 2007"〕 However, in 2010, and as a result of supply concerns and high ethanol fuel prices, the government mandated a temporary 90-day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1, 2010.〔 By mid March 2015 the government raised temporarily the ethanol blend in regular gasoline from 25% to 27%. The blend on premium gasoline was kept at 25% upon request by ANFAVEA, the Brazilian association of automakers, because of concerns about the effects on the higher blend on cars that were built for E25, as opposed to flex-fuel cars.〔 The government approved the higher blend as an economic incentive for ethanol producers, due to an existing overstock of over 1 billion liters (264 million US gallons) of ethanol. The implementation of E27 is expected to allow the consumption of the overstock before the end of 2015. After testing in government fleets with several prototypes developed by the local carmakers, and compelled by the second oil crisis, the Fiat 147, the first modern commercial neat ethanol car (E100 only) was launched to the market in July 1979. The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned oil company Petrobras, low-interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms, and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59% of the government-set gasoline price at the pump. Subsidising ethanol production in this manner and setting an artificially low price established ethanol as an alternative to gasoline.〔Lovins. A.B. (2005). Winning the Oil Endgame, p. 105.〕 After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s,〔 representing one third of the country's motor vehicle fleet,〔 ethanol production and sales of ethanol-only cars tumbled due to several factors. First, gasoline prices fell sharply as a result of lower gasoline prices, but mainly because of a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages by mid-1989. As supply could not keep pace with the increasing demand required by the now significant ethanol-only fleet, the Brazilian government began importing ethanol in 1991.〔〔 Since 1979 until December 2010 neat ethanol vehicles totaled 5.7 million units.〔 ''For the complete detail year by year up to 2010 see table in History of ethanol fuel in Brazil''〕〔 ''Production up to December 2010''〕 The number of neat ethanol vehicles still in use was estimated between 2 to 3 million vehicles by 2003,〔 and estimated at 1.22 million . Confidence on ethanol-powered vehicles was restored only with the introduction in the Brazilian market of flexible-fuel vehicles. In March 2003 Volkswagen launched in the Brazilian market the Gol 1.6 Total Flex, the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol.〔 〕 By 2010 manufacturers that build flexible fuel vehicles include Chevrolet, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, Renault, Volkswagen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Citroën, Nissan, and Kia Motors.〔 〕 In 2013, Ford launched the first flex fuel car with direct injection: the Focus 2.0 Duratec Direct Flex.〔(Ford põe no Focus o 1º motor flex com injeção direta; preço é segredo ) - UOL Carros, 28 August 2013〕 Flexible fuel cars were 22% of the car sales in 2004, 73% in 2005, 87.6% in July 2008, and reached a record 94% in August 2009. The cumulative production of flex-fuel cars and light commercial vehicles reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010,〔〔 and 15 million in January 2012. Registrations of flex-fuel cars and light trucks represented 87.0% of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in the country in 2012.〔'' See Table 2.3 and 2.4 pp. 60-63 and Table 2.5 and 2.6, 66''.〕 Production passed the 20 million-unit mark in June 2013. By the end of 2014, flex-fuel cars represented 54% of the Brazilian registered stock of light-duty vehicles, while gasoline only vehicles represented 34.3%. , flex-fuel light-duty vehicle cumulative sales totaled 25.5 million units. The rapid adoption and commercial success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, together with the mandatory blend of alcohol with gasoline as E25 fuel, have increased ethanol consumption up to the point that by February 2008 a landmark in ethanol consumption was achieved when ethanol retail sales surpassed the 50% market share of the gasoline-powered fleet.〔 This level of ethanol fuel consumption had not been reached since the end of the 1980s, at the peak of the ''Pró-Álcool'' Program.〔〔〔 〕 Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST) project, the first ethanol-powered (ED95) bus began operations in São Paulo city on December 2007 as a one-year trial project. A second ED95 trial bus began operating in São Paulo city in November 2009. Based on the satisfactory results obtained during the 3-year trial operation of the two buses, in November 2010 the municipal government of São Paulo city signed an agreement with UNICA, Cosan, Scania and ''Viação Metropolitana''", the local bus operator, to introduced a fleet of 50 ethanol-powered ED95 buses by May 2011. The local government objective is for the city's entire bus fleet, which is made of 15,000 diesel-powered buses, to use only renewable fuels by 2018. The first ethanol-powered buses were delivered in May 2011, and the 50 ethanol-powered ED95 buses are scheduled to begin regular service in São Paulo in June 2011. Another innovation of the Brazilian flexible-fuel technology was the development of flex-fuel motorcycles. The first flex motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US$2,700. In order to avoid cold start problems, the fuel tank must have at least 20% of gasoline at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F). In September 2009, Honda launched a second flexible-fuel motorcycle, the on-off road NXR 150 Bros Mix. By December 2010 both Honda flexible-fuel motorcycles had reached cumulative sales of 515,726 units, representing an 18.1% market share of the Brazilian new motorcycle sales in 2010. Two other flex-fuel motorcycles manufactured by Honda were launched in October 2010 and January 2011, the GC 150 FAN and the Honda BIZ 125 Flex. During 2011 a total of 956,117 flex-fuel motorcycles were produced, raising its market share to 56.7%.〔 Production reached the 2 million mark in August 2012. Flexible-fuel motorcycle production passed the 3 million-unit milestone in October 2013, and the 4 million mark in March 2015. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Ethanol fuel in Brazil」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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